Assessing Writing Skills in a Communicative Paradigm Essay

Communicative Language Testing is intended to assess learners’ ability to using the target language in real life situations. Its now ten years since Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has been introduced in secondary English curriculum of Bangladesh. Therefore, the test of English at the SSC level is now facing the challenges of assessing learners’ communicative skills. This study looks at the existing model of the SSC English test and explores the possibilities of incorporating a more communicatively based test format. The study is carried out on the basis of an evaluation of the test items on writing skills set in the SSC test papers. It also explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary English teachers and internationally renowned Language Testing Experts. In this paper, it is argued that, though secondary English education in Bangladesh has stepped into a communicative era ten years back, the current SSC test is not in accordance with the curriculum objectives. It is found that the test items on writing lack both validity and reliability. Suggestions made for improving the current SSC test include: defining the purpose of communication in English for SSC level learners, drafting test specifications, setting test items which are more relevant to a communicative purpose, and developing a marking scheme to mark the subjective items. Introduction The concept of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has had much influence in the fields of English language teaching, curriculum and test design. Since the 1970s, there have been considerable developments in the area of language testing. Various theories and practical testing models have evolved following the concept of communicative competence. Bangladesh has introduced a communicative English curriculum at its secondary education sector. However, the aims and objectives of the communicative curriculum can never be achieved without a testing system that assesses the communicative ability of learners. This paper looks at the existing Secondary School Certificate (SSC) English examination to identify the elements of communicative testing in it and examines the suitability of this testing system to the curriculum goals. The study involves a critical analysis of the current SSC test. It also explores the views of Bangladeshi secondary English teachers and two internationally renowned language testing experts on the SSC test and investigates the ways of making it more communicatively based. Background of English Language Teaching (ELT) in Bangladesh The teaching of English in Bangladesh has a long history that traces back to the colonial era. However, the British models of teaching English continued to influence the ELT scenario of post-colonial Bengal even after the colonial rule was over in 1947. Since then the grammar translation method continued to influence the ELT scenario as the most dominant teaching method in the Indian subcontinent. After the independence of Bangladesh (1971), several attempts were made to re-design ELT sector with little or no success. In 1990, a four year ELT project called Orientation of Secondary School Teachers for Teaching English in Bangladesh (OSSTTEB) was jointly launched by the Government of Bangladesh and DFID, UK to improve English Language Teaching and Learning at secondary level. This project revised, adapted and revamped the secondary English curriculum (Hoque, 1999). In 1997, a major step was initiated with the introduction of English Language Teaching Improvement Project (ELTIP). The project started working with a view to improving the communicative competence of the secondary level learners. Under this project, a communicative curriculum, revised text books and newly written Teachers’ Guides (TGs) were developed and some 30 thousand English teachers, test administrators, and markers were trained. The SSC examination The SSC is the first public examination in Bangladesh that learners sit for after 10 years of schooling. Students take English as a compulsory subject at this level. The examination is administered countrywide through the seven Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE). The question papers are set by the respective BISE independently following the national curriculum and syllabus of National Curriculum and Textbook Board (NCTB). The syllabus document of NCTB explicitly recommends a testing system that is in keeping with the spirits of CLT. The new syllabus document for classes 9-10 (NCTB 1999: 135) mentions, â€Å"Until and unless a suitable public examination is devised that tests English language skills rather than students’ ability to memorise and copy without understanding, the aims and objectives of the syllabus can never be realised.† Moreover samples of question papers were provided in the TGs and Teachers were encouraged to follow the test models. Research Questions This study is concerned with the following research questions: 1. How are students’ writing skills tested by the existing SSC English examinations? 2. To what extent are these test items communicatively based? 3. What do Bangladeshi teachers and the international testing experts think of the current SSC English examination? 4. How can the SSC examination be improved to reflect the goals stated in the national curriculum and syllabus document? Research methodology The approach to this resaerch belongs to the interpretative epistemology which argues that knowledge, in social research, is concerned not with generalization, prediction and control but with interpretation, meaning and illumination (Usher, 1996: 12). The approach here is guided by the belief that reality is a complex phenomenon which does not admit orderly events or simple cause-effect relationship. The data used is not only concerned with facts but also with values. In looking at a testing system which is comparatively new in the context of Bangladesh, it is admitted that reality is a human construct. The aim here is to explore perspectives and shared meanings (Wellington, 2000: 16) and the data used here is qualitative. The research procedure uses three different sources for collecting data and involves three steps. They are: a) a critical evaluation of the SSC English test format, b) collecting the views of Bangladeshi English teachers through questionnaires and, c) interviewing the two Australian testing experts based at Melbourne Univeristy. The evaluation of SSC examination includes a close analysis of the existing SSC test papers, syllabus document and marking criteria. The questionnaire attempts to explore the values and attitudes of secondary English teachers in relation to the SSC English testing system. The interviews with the language testing experts are intended to generate valuable ideas that could be applicable in improving the testing system of SSC. The development of modern language testing The development of modern language testing occurred in three historical phases prior to and during the 1970s. These three periods are- the scientific era, the psychometric-structuralist era and the integrative sociolinguistic era Spolsky (1978:5). According to Spolsky, the pre-scientific era was characterised by a lack of concern for statistical matters or for such notions as objectivity and reliability in language testing whereas the psychometric-structuralist period was concerned with tests that focus on discrete item tests. In fact, the psychometric-structuralist approach provided the basis for the flourishing of the standardised language test with its emphasis on discrete structure point items. However, discrete point tests were also criticised for being insufficient indicators of language proficiency (Oller 1979: 212). Language testing was directed to global tests in the 1970s, which opened up the psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic era (Weir, 1988: 3). This format of global and in tegrative tests (such as cloze) gained theoretical support from many researchers. Davies distinguishes four important types of language tests on the basis of their function or use- achievement tests, proficiency tests, aptitude tests and diagnostic tests (Davies and Allan 1977: 46-7). While achievement tests are concerned with assessing what has been learned of a known syllabus, proficiency tests are based on assessing the learning of either a known or unknown syllabus. The concept of communicative competence The idea of communicative language teaching emerged in the 1970s following Hymes’ theory of communicative competence, which greatly emphasised learners’ ability to use language in context, particularly, in terms of social demands of performance (McNamara, 2000: 116). Hymes believes that knowing a language is more than knowing its rules. Once Hymes proposed the idea of communicative competence, it was expanded in various ways during the following two decades. The term competence was interpreted in many different ways by researchers. To some it simply means the ability to ‘communicate’; to others it means the social rules of language use; and to yet other, it refers to a set of abilities including knowledge of linguistics, socio-linguistics and discourse rules (Bachman & Palmar, 1984: 34). However, the basic idea of communicative competence remains the ability to use language appropriately, both receptively and productively, in real situations (Kiato, et al. 1996: 1) The development of communicative language testing The idea of communicative testing was developed on the basis of Hymes’ two dimensional model of communicative competence that comprises a linguistic and a sociolinguistic element. Davies et al. gives the following definition of communicative language tests: Communicative tests are tests of communicative skills, typically used in contradistinction to tests of grammatical knowledge. Such tests often claim to operationalise theories of communicative competence, although the form they take will depend on which dimension they choose to emphasise, be it specificity to context, authenticity of materials or the simulation of real life performance.   (Davies et al. 1999: 26) Harrison mentions three ingredients which distinguishes a communicative language test from other tests. He argues: 1. A communicative test should assess language used for a purpose beyond itself. 2. A communicative test should depend on the bridging of an information gap. It has to propose a language using purpose which can be fulfilled by the communicative skill so far acquired by the learners. 3. A communicative test should represent an encounter. The situation at the end of it should be different from what it was at the beginning, and this means that there has to be some sequence within the test. (Harrison, 1983: 77-8) Competence Vs performance There have been debates among the researchers regarding the nature and function of communicative tests. One issue of controversy was how to specify the components of communicative competence and to relate them in measuring performances. Another complication arose as the terms ‘competence’ and ‘performance’ were used differently by various researchers suggesting important distinctions between them. Chomsky (1965) claimed that ‘competence’ refers to the linguistic system which an ideal native speaker has internalized whereas ‘performance’ is mainly concerned with the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech. Later Hymes (1972) explicitly, and Campbell and Wales (1970) implicitly proposed a broader notion of communicative competence in which they included grammatical competence as well as contextual or sociolinguistic competence. They, however, adopted the distinction between communicative ‘competence’ and ‘performance’. According to Canale and Swain (1980: 3) ‘competence’ refers to knowledge of grammar and other aspects of language while ‘performance’ refers to actual use. For the language testing researchers it was difficult to determine an ideal test model, which could be valid and reliable enough to test communicative competence. They were concerned with what performances for task based activities need to be devised in order to assess learners’ communicative competence. The most discussed answer to this query is the one provided by Canale and Swain (1980) who, in their influential work ‘Approaches to Second Language Testing’ specified four aspects of knowledge or competence- grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence and discourse competence. What makes good communicative tests? Though a communicative language test intents to measure how students use language in real life, it is difficult to set a task that can measure communicative competence in real contexts. Ellison (2001: 44) argues that testing by its very nature is artificial and unless we are to follow an examinee around all the time noting how he/she deals with the target language in all situations, we necessarily have a less than real situation. However, it should be the aim of the test setter to try and complement real situations as much as possible. Referring to the difficulty of identifying the elements of communicative testing Morrow (1991) states: The essential question which a communicative test must answer is whether or not (or how well) a candidate can use language to communicate meanings. But ‘communicate meanings’ is very elusive criterion indeed on which to base judgment. (Morrow, 1991: 112) There have been attempts to develop a model for communicative competence and valid tests of its components. Bachman and Palmer (1984: 35) describe three approaches: the skill-component approach, communicative approach and measurement approach to specify what language tests measure. Offering a detailed interpretation of the Canale-Swain communicative approach, Bachman and Palmer specify some factors (trait factors, modal factors, method factors) that should be considered while designing a performance test. Having examined the structure of a model which encompasses these three factors, Skehan (1991: 9) regarded it as ‘being of pivotal importance in influencing the language testing theories and practices throughout the 1990s.’ Later Bachman went further as he offered important distinctions between task-based and construct-based approaches to test design. He explained: The procedures for design, development, and use of language tests must incorporate both a specification of the assessment task to be included and definition of the abilities to be assessed. (Bachman, 2000: 456) Task based language assessment gave rise to two questions: a) How real-life task types are identified, selected and characterized and how pedagogic or assessment tasks are related to these (Bachman, 2000: 459) . The discussion of different approaches to language testing are concerned with their strengths and limitations in terms of the criteria of validity and reliability. Validity in language testing is about whether a test can measure what it is intended to measure. Other arguments regarding the test validity include the question of content relevance and representativeness, task difficulty etc. Reliability refers to the extent to which test scores are consistent. Assessing second language writing Assessment of second language writing has been discussed on the basis of two different approaches: objective test of writing and direct test of writing. Objective tests claim to test writing through verbal reasoning, error recognition and other measures that have been shown fairly highly with measured writing ability (Lyons, 1991: 5). In direct tests of writing, actual samples of students’ writings are assessed. In fact, direct tests of writing have won the support of many researchers as they engage students with more communicative and creative task types. However, this approach has also been criticised for lacking reliability. Despite their problems with reliability, direct tests are still very popular in many academic settings throughout the world. Kiato et al. (1996: 2) refer to some typical problems of testing writing. They point out that testing writing objectively may not necessarily reflect the way it is used by the students in the real world. On the other hand, testing of writing in a way that reflects how the students use writing in real world is difficult to evaluate objectively and the test setters has less control over the writing tasks. However, they argue that the ability to write should involve six component skills- grammatical ability, lexical ability, mechanical ability, stylistic skills, organisational skills and judgment of appropriacy. Among the writing tasks they find useful are: gap filling, form completion, making corrections, letter and essay writing. Weir (1988: 63-4) offers an elaborate discussion on both indirect (objective) and direct tests and distinguishes the two types. He argues that writing can be divided into discrete elements such as grammar, vocabulary and punctuation etc. and these elements are tested separately by the use of objective tests. He suggested that both productive and receptive skills can be broken down in to levels of grammar and lexis according to a discrete point framework and objective tasks such as cloze, selective deletion, gap filling etc. can be designed for testing reading with writing. Weir describes the direct test of writing as a more integrative test which tests a candidate’s ability to perform certain of the functional tasks required in the performance of duties in the target situation. Research on writing involving both native speakers and second language are also concerned with basic studies of the nature of writing process in order to relate them to the validity of writing test tasks. Some of the questions concerned are: 1. To what extent is performance influenced by the amount of prior knowledge that writers have about the topic that they are asked to write about in a test? 2. Does it make a difference how the writing task is specified on the test paper? 3. Do different types of tasks produce significant difference in the performance of learners in a writing test? (Read, 1991: 77) Johns (1991: 171) suggests three criteria for academic testing of writing- (1) use of reading for writing assessment: testing for audience awareness, (2) exploitation of common writing genres: argumentation and problem solution, and (3) testing of subject matter, conceptual control and planning. He insists that reading and writing be combined to give a more authentic context for testing writing for academic purpose. He says: Because reading and writing are interconnected at all academic levels, it seems unprofessional and certainly unacademic to test writing without the genuine interactivity that reading provides. (Johns, 19991: 176) Literature on testing has suggested different strategies to cope with the problem of making direct writing tasks. The problem with these tasks is they are very difficult to mark as the marking of such tasks is somewhat subjective. One solution suggested by many testing experts is to use an analytical marking scheme to help make the marking consistent. Murphy (1979: 19) outlined the nature of a marking scheme demanded by the Associated Examining Boards, â€Å"A marking scheme is a comprehensive document indicating the explicit criteria against which candidate’s answers will be judged; it enables the examiners to relate particular marks to answers of specified quality.† There have been discussions on two types of marking for free writing tasks- impressionistic and analytic. However there are arguments over what valid and reliable measures of writing can be used and what might be the relationship of these measures to overall impressionistic quality rating. The TOFEL examination included a direct writing measure (Connor, 1991: 216) in 1986 for the test of written English that was marked holistically (TOFEL test of written English guide 1989). A great deal of research was conducted by the Educational Testing Service into the development and validation of a measure to assess communicative competence in writing (Bridgman Carlson, 1983; Carlson et al. 1985). A holistic scoring guide was developed to mark two general topics-comparison/contrast and describing a graph that had six levels and included syntactic and rhetorical criteria. The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines (1989) identified the following criteria of a written task. An essay in the highest category is- well organized and well developed, effectively addressed the writing task, uses appropriate details to support or illustrate ideas, shows unity, coherence and progression, displays consistent facility in the use of language, and demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate word choice. (The Test of Written English Scoring Guidelines, 989) The marking scheme suggested by ELTIP to help teachers assess writing compositions is made on the basis of five criteria- grammar, vocabulary, mechanical accuracy, communication and content. A Marking scheme like this shows how developments in language testing research are providing models to cope with the challenges of marking writing tasks. The SSC Curriculum, syllabus and the test The SSC is the school leaving public examination for grad 10 students. English is a compulsory subject at this level and the test of English is an achievement test in kind. The test is designed to test reading and writing skills only as there is no provision of testing listening and speaking skills. The NCTB syllabus of English focuses on the development of the four skills through learner-centred activities within meaningful contexts. It gives importance to choosing contexts which reflect actual social situations outside the classroom and make the learning of English ‘relevant, interesting and enjoyable’. It is expected as per the syllabus that students should achieve an ‘elementary to intermediate command of the four language skills’ by the end of secondary level. The curriculum document specifies the objective and purposes of learning English as it states: English needs to be recognised as an essential work-oriented skill that is needed if the employment, development and educational needs of the country are to be met successfully. Increased communicative competence in English, therefore, constitutes a vital skill for learners at this stage. (SSC Syllabus Document, 1999, NCTB: 136) Terminal competencies in four skills are specified in the NCTB syllabus. The competencies for writing skills for grade 10 are defined as follows: Students should be able to- a) write simple dialogues, formal and informal letters including letters of application and reports. b) demonstrate imagination and creativity in appropriate writing forms. c) fill in the forms (i.e. job applications etc.) and write a curriculum vitae d) plan and organise the above tasks efficiently so as to communicate ideas and facts clearly, accurately and with relevance to the topic. e) take notes and dictations f) use different punctuation and geographical devices appropriately.

Swot Analysis of Indian Economy

SWOT Analysis of various sectors of Indian Economy. The India economy, which is the 9th largest in the world in terms of nominal GDP, can be broadly classified into three sectors: 1) Primary Sector or Agriculture Sector, which contributes about 15% to the GDP and employs around 57% of the total workforce. 2) Secondary Sector or Industry sector, which contributes about 28% to the DP and employs around 14% of the workforce. 3) Tertiary Sector or Service Sector, which contributes the maximum of 57% to the GDP and employs around 29% of the workforce. SWOT analysis of Agriculture Sector: Strengths : – * The favourable Climate and terrain of the Indian sub-continent makes it suitable for producing a variety of crops. * As it employs majority of population, it enjoys a competitive labour force. * The agriculture sector in India is competitive and hence evolving, produces a large variety of crops, and enjoys a well demanded market as Indians prefer fresh farm produce over the processed food items. Weaknesses:- * As the majority of workforce is uneducated, they are not able to make the most out of the government policies. Moreover, though the government spends enough over the agricultural reforms, but due to the low level of execution on their part, it does not produce the desired results. * Due to the lack of proper storage facilities and road connectivity of the farms with the respective market, around 60% of the fresh farm produce like vegetables, fruits etc get wasted. * Since only 40% of the land under cultivation gets irrigated through canals, tube wells etc. , the farmers depend heavily upon the annual monsoons. Opportunities:- A growing population, availability of modern agricultural techniques, easy availability of banking finance, variety of pest resistance crops, coming up of retail chains and various government schemes and policies, would make both the demand and the production go up. * Rise in demand of pulses and grains in the Asian economies, and the production of fuels like ethanol from grains, provide more market opportunities. Threats:- * More and more of the agricultural land is bei ng taken up to meet with the demands of the housing and industrial sector, thereby reducing land under cultivation. With the increase in the purchasing power of the Indians, the packaged food industry is gaining importance in the Indian market, especially in the cities and among the youth. * Some of the government policies like MGNREGA, is diverting the farm labour to other employment avenues, which could affect the agriculture adversely as it depends heavily on manual labour. * Stiff competition from the international markets, if India opens up the trade barriers in the agriculture sector. SWOT analysis of Industrial Sector: Strengths:- With over half a billion population in the age group of 25-60 years, the industrial sector enjoys a competitive labour market. * Availability of natural resources, skilled and cheap manpower, liberal national policies provide the environment for industries to thrive. Weaknesses:- * Due to India being a democratic country and a mixed economy, the ind ustry has to adhere too many of the protectionist policies of the government, which affects the industry adversely. * The complex labour laws and other political barriers, prevents the industries to work at the best of their efficiency, thus effecting productivity. Opportunities:- * With the rise in the incomes of the Indians, especially the Indian middle class, promises a lucrative domestic market for all the industries. * With the slowdown of the European & American economies, Indian companies should towards the African countries like Ghana, Kenya etc. which are growing at a rate of 7-8%. Threats:- * Stiff competition from developing economies like China, Bangladesh, Indonesia because of lower cost of production. * Delay in policy decisions by Indian policy makers, corruption charges and scandals, hindering the ease to do business. Protectionist policies adopted by various European countries and America to safeguard their own interests. SWOT analysis of Service Sector: Strengths:- * With 64% of the Indian population being educated, the service industry has a large talent poll to work with. * Due to large and skilled work force, the labour market becomes competitive, providing cheap labour. * The Robust Banking and Financial system and regulat ions, provide stability not only to banking sector but also to the entire economy. Weaknesses:- Too much dependence on America and European economies for business. * The Indigenous base of the IT industry is not sufficiently developed to sustain software export. Opportunities:- * With the Increased computerization in various public and government organization, the Indian IT industry has ready-made domestic market. Threats:- * Stiff competition from developing economies like China, Bangladesh, Indonesia because of lower labour. * Due to the economic slowdown, countries like America are adopting policies to prohibit outsourcing, which will affect the IT industry. Swot Analysis of Indian Economy SWOT Analysis of various sectors of Indian Economy. The India economy, which is the 9th largest in the world in terms of nominal GDP, can be broadly classified into three sectors: 1) Primary Sector or Agriculture Sector, which contributes about 15% to the GDP and employs around 57% of the total workforce. 2) Secondary Sector or Industry sector, which contributes about 28% to the DP and employs around 14% of the workforce. 3) Tertiary Sector or Service Sector, which contributes the maximum of 57% to the GDP and employs around 29% of the workforce. SWOT analysis of Agriculture Sector: Strengths : – * The favourable Climate and terrain of the Indian sub-continent makes it suitable for producing a variety of crops. * As it employs majority of population, it enjoys a competitive labour force. * The agriculture sector in India is competitive and hence evolving, produces a large variety of crops, and enjoys a well demanded market as Indians prefer fresh farm produce over the processed food items. Weaknesses:- * As the majority of workforce is uneducated, they are not able to make the most out of the government policies. Moreover, though the government spends enough over the agricultural reforms, but due to the low level of execution on their part, it does not produce the desired results. * Due to the lack of proper storage facilities and road connectivity of the farms with the respective market, around 60% of the fresh farm produce like vegetables, fruits etc get wasted. * Since only 40% of the land under cultivation gets irrigated through canals, tube wells etc. , the farmers depend heavily upon the annual monsoons. Opportunities:- A growing population, availability of modern agricultural techniques, easy availability of banking finance, variety of pest resistance crops, coming up of retail chains and various government schemes and policies, would make both the demand and the production go up. * Rise in demand of pulses and grains in the Asian economies, and the production of fuels like ethanol from grains, provide more market opportunities. Threats:- * More and more of the agricultural land is bei ng taken up to meet with the demands of the housing and industrial sector, thereby reducing land under cultivation. With the increase in the purchasing power of the Indians, the packaged food industry is gaining importance in the Indian market, especially in the cities and among the youth. * Some of the government policies like MGNREGA, is diverting the farm labour to other employment avenues, which could affect the agriculture adversely as it depends heavily on manual labour. * Stiff competition from the international markets, if India opens up the trade barriers in the agriculture sector. SWOT analysis of Industrial Sector: Strengths:- With over half a billion population in the age group of 25-60 years, the industrial sector enjoys a competitive labour market. * Availability of natural resources, skilled and cheap manpower, liberal national policies provide the environment for industries to thrive. Weaknesses:- * Due to India being a democratic country and a mixed economy, the ind ustry has to adhere too many of the protectionist policies of the government, which affects the industry adversely. * The complex labour laws and other political barriers, prevents the industries to work at the best of their efficiency, thus effecting productivity. Opportunities:- * With the rise in the incomes of the Indians, especially the Indian middle class, promises a lucrative domestic market for all the industries. * With the slowdown of the European & American economies, Indian companies should towards the African countries like Ghana, Kenya etc. which are growing at a rate of 7-8%. Threats:- * Stiff competition from developing economies like China, Bangladesh, Indonesia because of lower cost of production. * Delay in policy decisions by Indian policy makers, corruption charges and scandals, hindering the ease to do business. Protectionist policies adopted by various European countries and America to safeguard their own interests. SWOT analysis of Service Sector: Strengths:- * With 64% of the Indian population being educated, the service industry has a large talent poll to work with. * Due to large and skilled work force, the labour market becomes competitive, providing cheap labour. * The Robust Banking and Financial system and regulat ions, provide stability not only to banking sector but also to the entire economy. Weaknesses:- Too much dependence on America and European economies for business. * The Indigenous base of the IT industry is not sufficiently developed to sustain software export. Opportunities:- * With the Increased computerization in various public and government organization, the Indian IT industry has ready-made domestic market. Threats:- * Stiff competition from developing economies like China, Bangladesh, Indonesia because of lower labour. * Due to the economic slowdown, countries like America are adopting policies to prohibit outsourcing, which will affect the IT industry.

Managing Cultural Diversity

Summary This academic paper will consider the study â€Å"Cooperation and competition in intercultural interactions† conducted by David Matsumoto and Hyi Sung Hwang, San Francisco State University, United States. Prisoner’s Dilemma, Ultimatum, Trust Game are well-known play games which allowed to accumulate sufficient knowledge in the presented area of studies in terms of cooperation, competition, punishment, trust, trustworthy and clearly demonstrates that people of different cultures plays these games differently. Earlier research has come to conclusion that intercultural interactions shows less positive results in cooperative behaviors in game play than intracultural interactions; but to date no empirical links have been made between behavioral outcomes and cultural differences between the participants, which became the actual purpose of the study. The first hypothesis is that Intercultural condition will produce less positive behavioral outcomes and cooperation than the Control condition and the second hypotheses states that these behavioral differences are connected to cultural differences. Organizers of the study offered modified version of Prisoner’s Dilemma where partner either country mate or international one. Americans were put in the same sex-dyads in one of three conditions: with another American participants (Control Condition – 120 people, 40 males and 80 females), with an international student (Intercultural condition – 41 Americans, 20 males, 21 females and 41 international participants, 20 males and 21 females), or with another American but under stressful condition (Stress conditions – 90 people, 44 males and 46 females). The aim of the participants is to increase their participation fee, and they were told that an amount of paid sum depends on their play, in reality they received standard amount of fee. They were seated opposite each other and were not allowed to talk, each pair was separated by divider, Experimenter observed the play on the other side of the table. Each participant was given 20 1$ coins and a blue (competitiveness, defection or betrayal) and yellow (cooperation, trust, vulnerability) card. They had an option whether to play with blue or yellow card within the time allotted for each play. Participants in the Control and Intercultural Conditions were instructed to increase their original payoffs and they received participation fee regardless they won or lost the play; the length of each round 20 s. Participants in stress conditions were instructed that one participant should win over other, and winner will receive all coins from looser; each round lasted for 4 s. Play continued for 20 rounds, or until one of the players lost all their money. Researchers opted a broad-based approach, where they defined a set of context variables (they were extracted from the plays and summed across both players for production a score for each pair) and in addition they created 10 individual characteristics (cooperation, betrayal, forgiveness, retaliation, reparation, defection, reconciliation, stalemate, prosocial acts, antisocial acts); examined indices of cultural differences between pairs of individuals from different cultures, using home country scores on Hofestede’ (2001) cultural dimensions (Individualism vs. Collectivism, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity vs. Femininity, and Long vs. Short Term Orientation) . Researches also created cultural differences score in the intercultural condition. All participants passed a personality test (Neo-Five Factor Inventory) and were qualified as acceptable. Besides this, participants self-reported their emotions using 9- point scale (0-9 anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, surprise, pride, shame, embracement, guilt, interest and etc. ) before entering the experiment room and after. For the intercultural Conditions researches computed Cultural Distances scores for each pair using Hofstede’s (2001) five cultural dimensions. As the result after computing dependent/independent variable (Condition), taking into consideration that pair had the same characteristics (same sex strangers in the same condition), analyzing data for hypotheses, conducting post hoc comparisons using Scheffe tests, thus researchers concluded that Intercultural Condition looked like the Stress Condition, demonstrating worse behavioral outcomes than the Control Condition despite the Intercultural Conditions had the same instructions and procedures as the ontrol Condition. Hypothesis 1 was proved. Initiators of the study also computed pair level correlations between Geographic and Cultural Distance scores with each of the behavioral outcomes in the Intercultural Conditions. Greater cultural Distance on Power Distance was reliably was strongly associated with less positive behavioral outcomes. Hypothesis 2 was supported. Discussion Strengths This study is the very first research which empirically linked behavioral outcomes to cultural differences between the players and it is undeniable that these findings play will make essential contribution for future empirical works, business development, intercultural trainers and participants itself. Organizers of the study introduced personality scale to control individual-level effects, offered participants to self-report twice their emotional state prior and after experiment, measured and computed dependent/independent context variables (used well-known Hofested’s cultural dimensions) in order to reduce the possibility of commitment of the ecological and cultural attribution fallacy. Limitations Cross-cultural literature do not explain us sufficiently what happens in intercultural situations because cross-cultural differences are not necessarily translated to behavioral differences in intercultural interactions; moreover, there is no empirical demonstration that less cooperative and more destructive behaviors associated with intercultural interactions connected to cultural differences between the participants. Game rules and experimental procedure make direct comparisons very difficult and there is a possibility that instructions are interpreted differently in different cultures. Difference scores of participants’ home country scores on cultural dimensions are not strongly linked to participants because they are simply diffuse and abstract. Methodology didn’t allow for separation of relative standing of the relative standing of power distance and examination of whether differences were consistent at different values of dimension. Another concerns how the participants in the Intercultural Condition perceive differences between each other. Plus, it is implicit whether these perceptions are automatic or deliberate thought. One of the limitations of the study related to potential explanatory variables (such variables may have been at play) that were not measured (culturally-based, individual differences in economic expectations, religious differences etc. ) References Matsumoto D. Hwang H. S. , (2011), Cooperation and competition in intercultural interactions, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 35 , Issue 5 , pp. 677-685 Ailon, G. (2008). Mirror, mirror on the wall: Culture’s consequences in a value test of its own design. Academy of Management Review, 33(4), 885–904. Allik, J. , & Realo, A. (2004). Individualism–Collectivism and social capital. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 35(1), 29–49.

Outsourcing of American Jobs to Foreign Countries Research Paper

Outsourcing of American Jobs to Foreign Countries - Research Paper Example â€Å"Offshore outsourcing in the services sector is a major shift in how our economy operates, and it will have serious impacts on the tragedy of economic growth, national security, the distribution of income, and the workforce† (Hira and Hira, 2008, p. 95). This is essentially a way in which jobs that would otherwise have been made available to the Americans are being sold out to people outside America, thus causing hundreds of thousands of Americans to remain unemployed and face the consequences. There is a lot of literature that suggests that US is bringing the economy of such other countries as China at par with her own by outsourcing jobs to them, thus creating a two-way negative effect on her own economy, firstly by depriving the Americans of jobs and secondly, by making the economy of other countries stronger and her own weaker. This paper discusses the negative implications of outsourcing jobs to other countries by US. Outsourcing is making the American economy weaker and the American citizens unhappier day by day. Overseas outsourcing is causing loss of jobs for the Americans. â€Å"Over 2 million manufacturing jobs have been lost since the official start of the Great Recession and since the 2000, the United States has lost 5.6 million jobs, or about 33% from year 2000† (Oak, 2011). ... One company that is conventionally loaded with criticism despite the fact that it is the largest retail brand in the US is Wal-Mart. The very reason for which Wal-Mart is criticized is outsourcing. Wal-Mart is accused of outsourcing the services of vendors to make the products it does business from. Wal-Mart is enlisted among the biggest importers of China in the US as it imports up to $7.5 billion from China and roughly just as much from its suppliers (Heal, 2008, p. 115). One of the most vocal critics of Wal-Mart is the organized labor, which is primarily the group of unskilled labor which suffers from the effects of outsourcing. â€Å"Economist Paul Samuelson, a Nobel Prize winner, wrote in a 2004 paper that the economic effect of outsourcing is similar to allowing mass immigration of workers willing to compete for service jobs at extremely low wages† (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2012). Outsourcing of American jobs to the foreign countries exposes the American entrepreneurs to a lot of risks. In the capacity of the importers of services of the foreign vendors, success of the American entrepreneurs is tied to the financial health of those vendors. It is not quite unusual for a foreign vendor to go bankrupt in which case, the American entrepreneur has to bear the consequences. In addition to that, outsourcing endangers the national security interests. One of the main causes of war that happened between the US and Japan in the year 1941 was the Japanese perception that her economic and industrial development was being unjustly hampered by the US as the US had restrained the supply of raw materials and technology into Japan along with restricting the export of goods out of the Empire. Outsourcing of jobs to other

Definition of Family Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Definition of Family - Essay Example It is also considered to be a basic and significant unit for bringing up children in a social manner. A family may be classified as a multifocal family in which a mother and the children are present, a conjugal family in which the husband, wife and their children from the members of the family and extended family in which apart from the parents and the children there are other members residing in the family who are originally the members of the parents in this family. A family in which only parents and their children live is called a nuclear family whereas extended families with a wide number of relationships are known as joint families. Family is an important unit of socialization. The term family is used to refer to inclusive categories like nationhood, community, humanism and global villages. A family forms the basic unit for all these categories in a society. Family is also considered to be a significant economic unit which is widely studied under family economics. Many sociological and biological theories have been presented by different scholars to support the concept and evolution of family in the society from the starting of the human civilization till the present day. The biological theory of evolution coined by Darwin is an important theory in the area of evolution of systems of family in the human societies. The concept of family has also evolved in phased of savagery barbarism and civilization as indicated by other anthropologists like Lewis H. Morgan. The concept of family as an important social unit has been recognized most widely in the civilization stage of human progress (Forbes 20). The transformation of the civilized society and a class based society from a primitive community is identified to have been largely driven by the evolution of family systems in the human societies. The function and structure of families are said to depend largely on the

The Economic in Taiwan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Economic in Taiwan - Essay Example As a result, even in the best case scenario, economic growth in the region will suffer into the second half of 2003. The rising impact of SARS (in line with a rising number of cases) on private consumption, coupled with a lower than expected rise in GDP growth in the first quarter of 2003, has led us to reduce our forecast for economic growth in 2003 as a whole from 3.7% to 3.2%. A stronger recovery in both domestic and external demand will result in GDP growth of 5.4% in 2004. Taiwan is unlikely to face significant inflationary pressures until late 2003 as domestic demand remains sluggish and international inflationary trends continue to be benign. Entry to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in January 2002 has reduced imported inflation and will continue to put downward pressure on prices in the forecast period. Following the US-led war in Iraq, prices on international oil markets have eased. As a result, we expect the consumer price index to rise by an average rate of only 0.3% year on year in 2003. Stronger domestic and international demand for goods and services are expected to revive price pressures in 2004, lifting inflation to an annual average of 1.4%. We expect the CBC to allow the currency to remain weak, mainly in order to maintain the competitiveness of Taiwan's exports against those of Japan and South Korea. However, exports are unlikely to receive a major boost as a result, owing to general weakness in world demand, but the measure will help Taiwan producers to maintain market share. The CBC will allow the New Taiwan dollar to appreciate significantly only once there is sufficient evidence of a sustained recovery in GDP growth. Accordingly, in 2003 the currency will strengthen slightly in line with faster GDP growth late in the year, and as a result, average NT$34.79:US$1. Once the recovery in GDP growth gains momentum in 2004, the currency will appreciate further, to an annual average of NT$34.24:US$1 in 2004. The rate of growth in merchandise exports in US dollar terms has recovered since the second quarter of 2002. However, US demand-- the US is the destination for close to one-quarter of total exports--for Taiwan's exports has remained weak since the beginning of 2003. In addition, some of the year-on-year growth in exports during 2002 reflected base effects of comparison with 2001, when Taiwan's US dollar export earnings suffered double-digit declines. (Chu 79-104) The weak Taiwan dollar policy adopted by the CBC, mainly owing to the weakness of the Japanese yen, will not be enough to strengthen exports significantly. Nevertheless, exports to Asia, in particular China, will continue to provide some stimulus to the country's external sector. Imports have also been rising since mid- 2002. This trend is likely to be interrupted by fragile domestic demand (not helped by SARS) and the loss of momentum in export growth, although import growth is still expected to outpace export growth in 200 3-04. As a result, the

Business Ethics-What Should Barner do Term Paper

Business Ethics-What Should Barner do - Term Paper Example The following case circumstance therefore is more of a challenge to the policies that they have and the values that they purport to uphold. The use of child labor is an unacceptable part of any contemporary society or conceivable reality. While this may be the general and ideal case, there are certain countries that still use children to make profits. The case presents Barner with a significant opportunity for the company. IKEA should clearly come out and accept this fact and the complexities that it possesses. Even in situation that child labor may be camouflaged as household chores; they should be in a position to distinguish the two and strengthen their policies (Jeruissen, 135). First of all, it gives her an opportunity to review the policies that they have in place as to trade practices. Secondly, it presents her with an opportunity to start validating the type of suppliers that IKEA trades with. Thirdly, it provides her with the chance to ensure that the suppliers that she deal s with conform to the policies that IKEA holds as strong values and finally, it presents her with the chance to show that IKEA is more than an organization that is out to make profit by any means necessary. All these instances are ethically based and not commercially focused. If they were commercially focused, the interest of the child would be the least of concerns because the suppliers would argue that the children are paid for their services. Next Move One major step that ought to be taken before any other moves is to first apologize for the ignorance about the issue in which IKEA has found itself in. this apology should bring out the point that the company intends to take the necessary corrective measures to clear the mess. It should also include how this corrective move is going to be applied so as to ensure that such mistakes are not commonplace in the future. In this way, the brand value that IKEA has developed over the past as the case shows, will not only increase but will also sell out. Most people appreciate the fact that they are dealing with company’s that appreciate social values. It is however essential that Barner finds the best way to understand the situation in which this supplier has put them. It would be wrong to take harsh measures on a company that was otherwise following genuine policies. This is because global outsourcing also has its share of cultural, social and regulatory differences that have to be dealt with. In dealing with such issues, the effect should in no way interfere with the supply and distribution chain. IKEA as a company has already built a customer niche that has grown loyal. If actions that Marianne Barner takes interfere with their demand for products, it would not only interfere with the sales but customer confidence too. Therefore, any decision on any of the proposals that IKEA has received should also not be unethical (Griseri, & Seppala, 227). It should be noted that the production of carpets in India is sp read over a geographical area that is very large. From the vast countryside to several smaller units; at times to even individual looms within the villages in these farms. This would therefore make it impossible for IKEA or any other organization that deals in a similar supply chain to effectively guarantee that there is no use of child labor at any point in this wide and long chain. Therefore, the idea that IKEA should sign up to an industry-wide response to the growing concerns

Explain how schooling and earnings are related and how a Mincer Essay

Explain how schooling and earnings are related and how a Mincer function estimates the rate of return to schooling. What problem - Essay Example This premium has increased since the 1970s. It means that the employers in different sectors value workers who are more educated (Steve, 2006). The set of abilities and skills that different individuals bring to the market is called human capital. Schooling is an investment in the human capital. This is so because it delivers skills that are specialized and boosts the productivity of workers. As a result, levels of education that are higher generally lead to an increased power of earning (Boniface, 1999). Different researches have been able to show that each year one spends in school improves their annual earning by ten per cent (Melvin, 1991). However, one should way the options of attending work to furthering their education. This choice is called the â€Å"opportunity cost† or the true price of education. A person who seeks to maximize his future earnings should choose remaining in school to learn more if only the long-run payout in an additional year in school is able to s urpass the opportunity cost (Vade, 2012). The impact caused by schooling on the different levels of earning carries a significant weight for the decision making of persons as well as the policy makers. With the theories of education and earning in the United Kingdom and the averaged ten per cent return rate annually, schooling represents among the finest investment any given government can make for the period of financial limitations and scarce resources. Through subsidizing education, the policy creators are able to ensure that education is more affordable and more accessible. It is argued that investment in the sector of education is a sure way for good result of an economy and the standard of living for the people who have low incomes. (Ruben, 1999). The Wage-schooling locus is a theory based on the total amount of earnings that different firms are ready to pay their employees for a given level of schooling. According to the theory, different workers with different educational le vel have different amount of salaries (Helen, 2005). The more one is educated the more his or her salary per annum. There are certain properties that a wage-schooling locus has. The locus slopes upwards. The upward sloping curve shows that more education is needed in the market and an increase in the level of education has an increasing effect on the salaries of employees (Jackson, 1997). This curve indicates an earnings increase associated with one year additional of education. The wage-schooling locus curve is concave. This indicates that there is a diminishing rate of return to the accumulation of human capital. Each additional year of education yields less knowledge increase and a lower additional earning compared to previous years (Else, 1999). A year increase in education leads to an increase in salaries but at a reducing rate. The wage-schooling locus indicates the salary which a worker would get after completing a certain level of education (Reuben, 1990). If this worker wer e a high school graduate, he or she would earn $ 21,000 in a year. If the worker advances his or her education for one year in college, his or her returns will increase to $ 24,000, according to this graph. Dollars 24,000 21,000 12 13 14 Years of schooling Mincer function Mincer was able to come up with an earning natural logarithm model. This model is a function of the education years and the years of the

Organizational Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organizational Behavior - Essay Example Hence, it can be stated that OB accounts various interconnected dimensions of organizational performances such as motivation, diversity, team effectiveness, conflict and negotiation, decision-making, power and influence, organizational communication and culture (New Age International, n.d.). Emphasizing on the aforementioned major characteristics of OB, the discussion henceforth will intend to elaborate on my experiences with due regard to three specific dimensions of the conceptual framework, i.e. team effectiveness, organizational communication and motivation. Discussion Team Effectiveness Team effectiveness signifies that individuals who were involved in a single group and were functioning as a team have performed in an efficient manner towards the accomplishment of the common objectives. In today’s phenomenon, employees of an organization are essentially required to perform their assigned activities in a group or team for accomplishing the objectives of an organization eff iciently with a common motive or purpose majorly owing to the increasing complexities arising within the managerial sphere. The management of an organization is required to act as a leader for effective coordination of the activities of employees developing a clear view towards the goals (Duygulu & Ciraklar, 2008). The varied uniqueness of team effectiveness is to have a common goal or objective for the team with an open scope for communication among the participants. The decisions are to be taken in a cooperative manner within an environment of faith, as well as belief owing to which, a coordinated and interdependent team work becomes quite necessary. Hence, it can be stated that team work is an essential element for improving the performances of employees as well as building healthy relationship within an organization, as these features are mostly likely to augment organizational strengths to adopt changes more flexibly and therefore, successfully accomplishing the determined goal s or objectives (Duygulu & Ciraklar, 2008). Certainly, focusing on the criticality of the dimension, i.e. team effectiveness, various models or theoretical frameworks had been designed among which the GRPI Model has been one of the most versatile and realistic method to measures and control team performances within an organization. GRPI Model was introduced by Rubin, Plovnick and Fry (1977) which signifies Goals, Roles, Processes as well as Interpersonal Relationship. In accordance with the assumptions considered in the model, the members of the team should be aware of the goals or objectives which are to be accomplished. The members of the team should also be delegated with their roles as well as responsibilities unambiguously to perform the assigned activities. Processes related to decision making as well as resolving conflicts for steady flow of work and performance by the members also needs to be considered with due significance when measuring team performances as these activiti es shall fruitfully enhance interpersonal relationship among members and leaders (The Korn/Ferry Institute, 2009). Organizational Communication Organizational communication is a process through which information are exchanged among the

Specific airline Essay Example for Free

Specific airline Essay Evalute why the low cost carrier are so successful? Use specific airline industry examples to illustrate yor answers. low cost carriers are discount carriers which offer low transport fares for passenger services. Until the emergence of deregulation of the airline sector, the success of this type of airline was restricted to the United States. however, this particular lucrative concept of airline business now holds sway in Europe, Asia, America and other parts of the world. this tye of business is run on low cost; it also offers affordable low cost ticket prices. Low cost carriers in the airline industry have contributed a great deal to improved service delivery at convenient and reduced prices in the industry. this type of airline carriers can be local[transporting within a defined region or country] or transnational [operates beyond national boundaries]. their tickets are affordable by all. They also offer a variety of low cost services on the plane because of the nature of their services, they intrinsincaly attract the middle and low income earners who form a major bulk of the population. It is important to state that the pricing mechanism also differs in terms of discounts and exacts fares among this type of carriers. Apart from these pricing and operating mechanisms, some may adopt a simplified route mechanism to less-congested and more satisfying locations with perceived higher patronage; others could opt for simplified luggage, employee or fueling mechanism. the goal in each case is to reduce cost of service and offer good but affordable services. The success of this type of industry is here illustrated by the Southwest airlines, based in United States. It has been in existsnce in 1973, and has since enjoyed effective customer patronage, lucrative returns and comfortable service. Other cariers include easy-jet[UK], Ryanair[IRELAND] and Virgin blue[AUSTRALIA]. The Southwest airline is one of the largest low-cost carriers in the world, and is acclaimed the largest low income carrier in the United states; based in Dallas Texas. One of the most important mechanisms that have contributed to the success of this ariline is its unique ability to hedge fuel prices through profit-motivated trading in energy prices based on speculations about fuel prices. The aim is to reduce the expenditure while maintaining quality supply from reputable suppliers. It has also developed mechanism which encourage fuel efficiency particularly the jet engine pressure washer. It flies slightly over 60 destinations in the United States although it has plans to expand its target locations. Its corporate culture includes flexibility, which allows passenges change their seat reservations without charges. it also operates a unique passenger allocation to boarding groups which makes it faster to board the plane. The essence of this is that is offers great customer services which makes it rank among one of the best customer service providers in the airline industry; its welcome announcements and songs are warm, the in-flight service of meals and package of luggage have earned the airline a place in the heart of most passengers. their flexibility in pricing constitutes a risk to full-service airlines; as a result, they enjoy better patronage because thier services are cheaper. Beyond these, it also has excellent environmental protection records with respect to waste disposal.

Comparative Study of Methods of Fetal Weight Estimation

Comparative Study of Methods of Fetal Weight Estimation INTRODUCTION: Knowledge of fetal weight in utero is important for the obstetrician to decide whether or not to deliver the fetus and also to decide the mode of delivery. Both low birth weight and excessive fetal weight at delivery are associated with increased risk of newborn complications during labor and the puerperium. Various clinical formulae like Johnson’s formula and Dawn’s formula have come into usage for fetal weight estimation. Another formula is the product of symphysiofundal height with abdominal girth in centimeters which gives a fairly good estimate of fetal weight. METHODS: It is a prospective observational study of 200 women at term pregnancy at a hospital.  Patients within 15 days from their Expected Date of Delivery were included in the study. The formulas used in this study are: JOHNSON’S FORMULA SYMPHYSIOFUNDAL HEIGHT X ABDOMINAL GIRTH (AG X SFH) DAWN’S FORMULA HADLOCK’S FORMULA USING ULTRASOUND. RESUTLS: There have been differing results about accuracy of various methods of estimating fetal weight. This study showed that AG X SFH was the best indicator among all other methods assessed followed by Hadlock’s formula by ultrasonographic method. CONCLUSION: Fundal height assessment is an inexpensive method for screening for fetal growth restriction. SFH measurement continues to be used in many countries on large scale because of its low cost, ease of use, and need for little training as the setup for ultrasonographic evaluation is not readily available in rural setups. KEYWORDS: Fetal Weight, At Term Pregnancy, Symphysiofundal Height, Ultrasonography, Newborn Complications INTRODUCTION Knowledge of fetal weight in utero is important for the obstetrician to decide whether or not to deliver the fetus and also to decide the mode of delivery. Both low birth weight and excessive fetal weight at delivery are associated with an increased risk of newborn complications during labor and the puerperium. The perinatal complications associated with low birth weight are attributable to preterm delivery, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), or both. For excessively large fetuses, the potential complications associated with delivery include shoulder dystocia, brachial plexus injuries, bony injuries, and intrapartum asphyxia. The maternal risks associated with the delivery of an excessively large fetus include birth canal and pelvic floor injuries and postpartum hemorrhage. The occurrence of cephalopelvic disproportion is more prevalent with increasing fetal size and contributes to both an increased rate of operative vaginal delivery and cesarean delivery for macrosomic fetuses compared with fetuses of normal weight. Estimation of fetal weight being done clinically has received much criticism for less accuracy due to observer variation. Various clinical formulae like Johnson’s formula and Dawn’s formula have come into usage for fetal weight estimation. Another formula is the product of symphysiofundal height with abdominal girth in centimeters which gives a fairly good estimate of fetal weight. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to assess the fetal weight in term pregnancies by various methods- abdominal girth (cms) X symphysiofundal height (cms) AG X SFH, Johnson’s formula, Dawn’s formula and Hadlock’s formula using ultrasound, and to compare the methods after knowing the actual weight of the baby after birth. MATERIALS AND METHODS It is a prospective observational study of 200 women at term pregnancy at Dhiraj General Hospital, Vadodara from 1st June 2010 to 31st May 2011. Patients within 15 days from their Expected Date of Delivery were included in the study. Cases of MULTIPLE PREGNANCIES, OLIGO/POLYHYDRAMNIOS, MALPRESENTATIONS AND FIBROID OR ADNEXAL MASSES were excluded THE METHODS JOHNSON’S FORMULA SYMPHYSIOFUNDAL HEIGHT X ABDOMINAL GIRTH. DAWN’S FORMULA HADLOCK’S FORMULA USING ULTRASOUND. JOHNSON’S FORMULA: WEIGHT IN GRAMS = (SYMPHYSIOFUNDAL HEIGHT – x) X 155. Here symphysiofundal height is taken after correcting the dextrorotation, from the upper border of symphysis to the height of the fundus. station of the head was noted: x = 12 when head was at or above the level of the ischial spines x = 11 when head was below the level of ischial spines. AG X SFH: Weight in grams = abdominal girth (AG) x symphysiofundal height (SFH) (AG X SFH) Abdominal girth was measured at the level of umbilicus and symphysiofundal height as described earlier. DAWN’S FORMULA: WEIGHT IN GRAMS = Longitudinal diameter of the uterus x (transverse diameter of the uterus)2 x 1.44 2 HADLOCK’S FORMULA: After head circumference, abdominal circumference and femur length were measured in centimeters, the sonography machine calculated the fetal weight. Fetal weight estimated by the above four methods was compared with the actual weight of the baby after birth. A comparative analysis of the four methods was done. OBSERVATION AND RESULTS TABLE I: WEIGHT WISE DISTRIBUTION TABLE II : AVERAGE ERROR IN CALCULATION OF FETAL WEIGHT IN VARIOUS GROUPS Average error in all fetal weight groups except in >3500 gms was least with AG X SFH closely followed by Hadlock’s ultrasound method. Average error in > 3500 gms group was least with Johnson’s formula. TABLE III : NUMBER OF CASES UNDERESTIMATED AND OVERESTIMATED IN VARIOUS FORMULAS Number of over and under-estimations in all fetal weight groups was calculated. AG X SFH and Dawn’s formula had a tendency to underestimate. The other 2 methods overestimated. In > 3500 gms group, all methods underestimated. TABLE IV : MAXIMUM ERROR IN ALL FETAL WEIGHT GROUPS Most marked with Dawn’s and least with AG X SFH. By both these methods maximum error was in the 3001- 3500 gms group. By Johnson’s formula, maximum error was in the TABLE V: PERCENTAGE ERROR IN VARIOUS METHODS Percentage error was calculated using: x/y x 100 x= error in grams y= birth weight in grams As seen in the table, 85.5% cases came within 15% of actual birth weight by both Hadlock’s and AG X SFH methods. As compared to only 50% and 63.5% by Dawn’s and Johnson’s formula, respectively. TABLE VI: STANDARD DEVIATION OF PREDICTION ERROR The standard deviation of prediction error was least with Hadlock’s formula, closely followed by AG X SFH. It is much higher with Dawn’s and Johnson’s formulae. The variance between the four methods was statistically different. p value DISCUSSION Birth weight is a key variable affecting fetal and neonatal morbidity, particu- larly in preterm and small-for-dates babies. In addition, it is of value in the management of breech presentations, diabetes mellitus, trial of labour, macrosomic fetuses and multiple births. Clinicians’ estimates of birth weight in term pregnancy were as accurate as routine ultrasound estimation in the week before delivery. Furthermore, parous women’s estimates of birth weight were more accurate than either clinical or ultrasound estimation. There have been differing results about the accuracy of the various methods of estimating fetal weight. This study showed that AG X SFH was the best indicator among all of the other methods assessed followed by Hadlock’s formula by ultrasonographic method. Other studies have reported limited accuracy of ultrasound EFW at term, particularly in macrosomic fetuses but over all accuracy of this formula is same for all infants. Equipped with information about the fetal weight the obstetrician managing labour is able to pursue sound obstetric management, reducing perinatal morbidity and mortality. Symphysiofundal height is one of the important clinical parameters taken for fetal weight estimation by AG X SFH, Johnson’s formula, Dawn’s formula. According to my study, Hadlock’s ultrasonographic method was the most accurate for estimating fetal weight. Of the three clinical methods, AG X SFH has better predictable results than the other 2 methods. AG X SFH, a clinical formula can be of great value in a developing country like ours where ultrasound is not available at many health care delivery centres. It is easy and simple, can be used even by midwives. With less errors AG X SFH is easier to apply by paramedical workers for the evaluation of fetal weight even in the rural setup as like our area of this study. By this study the results are suggesting that Hadlock’s formula has least standard deviation but it requires ultrasonographic evaluation. So after it, AG X SFH is the second most formula for estimation of featl weight which is clinically applicable and most reliable method in the absence of sonologic setup. CONCLUSION Fundal height assessment is an inexpensive method for screening for fetal growth restriction.1 Clinicians are biased in their fundal height measurements by knowledge of gestational age and use of a marked measuring tape. This tendency increases with higher patient BMI and with less provider experience.2 While we have yet to establish reliable tests to predict which pregnancies are at risk of developing IUGR, surveillance of fetal growth in the third trimester of pregnancy continues to be the mainstay for the assessment of fetal well-being. Such surveillance is done by regular fundal height assessment, ultrasound biometry or a combination of both methods.3 Relative growth of the SF height seems to be independent of fetal sex, maternal obesity and parity.4 There is disagreement in SFH measurement between observers regarding the ability to separate small fundal heights from those that are not small (Bailey 1989). This becomes an issue especially in a clinical setting where the pregnant woman sees more than one clinician during the course of her pregnancy. Despite this, SFH measurement continues to be used in many countries on a large scale simply because of its low cost, ease of use, and need for very little training.5 Ultrasound evaluation of fetal growth, behavior, and measurement of impedance to blood flow in fetal arterial and venous vessels form the cornerstone of evaluation of fetal condition and decision making.6 REFERENCES 1).Morse K, Williams A, Gardosi J (December 2009). â€Å" Fetal growth screening by fundal height measurment†. 2).Jelks A, Cifuentes R, Ross MG (October 2007) Clinician bias in fundal height measurement. 3).Gardosi Francis 1999, Morse et al 2009.  «Standardised protocol for measurment of symphysio fundal height » 4).Bergman E, Axelsson O, Kieler H, Sonesson C, Petzold M. Relative growth for estimation of intrauterine growth retardation. . Submitted. 2010. 5).Robert Peter J, Ho J, Valliapan J, Sivasangari S. Symphysial fundal measurement (SFH) in pregnancy for detecting abnormal fetal growth (Protocol). The Cochrane Library. 2009(Issue 4). 6).Resnik R. Intrauterine growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol. 2002 March.

How Does Motivation Affect Performance?

How Does Motivation Affect Performance? This literature study tries  to examine how work motivation affects the job performance within an organization. Work motivation can be divided in two types of motivation called intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from a person within and extrinsic motivation is motivation on materially goals. There are a lot of aspects which can influence / create the work motivation within an organization. Out this research there can be said that interests, enjoyment, salary and power can influence the work motivation of employees. When managers want to measure the motivation, they can use self-reports over time. After a period the managers can compare the two points with each other. Job performance can just like work motivation divided in task and contextual performance. The performance can simply be measured over time. After a specific period they can see if the performance of an employee is increased or decreased. There are found some variables that influence the job performance. The most important variables are enjoy, interests, money and power. All four of these variables have a positive influence on the job performance but all four in another way. In this study there are some aspects which could have influence on the relationship between work motivation and job performance. First off all there can be said that the relation between work motivation and job performance is positive. There are two combinations which are interesting. First, the relation between intrinsic motivation and task performance is interesting. When employees are intrinsically motivated the task performance of employees will increase. Second, the relation between extrinsic rewards and performance is interesting. When employees receive an extrinsic reward like money ore promotion, their performance will also increase. Conclusively, there can be said that motivation has a positive effect on the job performance of employees within an organization. Both intrinsic as extrinsic motivation have a positive influence on the job performance. Managers can use this information within an organization to motivate the employees. This will eventually increases the job performance of those employees Preface Chapter 1: Introduction This thesis will analyze how work motivation can affect the work performance of employees in an organization. There are a large amount of aspects that contributes to the success of an organization. For an organization it is very important that people are motivated. If the employees of an organization are motivated their interests, attitude and performance will improve during work hours (Locke 2004). Furthermore the performance is also an aspect that contributes to the success of an organization. The main goal of an organization is to make profit. An organization can only make profit if the employees of that specific organization can achieve their goals (Beal 2005). This thesis will analyze how employers can influence the job performance of their employees and if this will influence the success of an organization. As said above, this thesis will focus on the connection between work motivation and job performance and how they influence the success of an organization. A large amount of researchers use two different types of motivation. Researchers agree that there is an intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation by employees. Intrinsic motivation means acting from inside and this is inherently connected with enjoy and interest (Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. 2000b). Extrinsic motivation is acting in specific way that lead to a valuable added value (Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. 2000b). This is why this thesis will look at the different types of motivation (especially intrinsic and extrinsic motivation). If the two types of motivation and job performance are discussed the link between work motivation and job performance can be found. Is there a positive or negative link between work performance and job motivation? How does work motivation influences the job performance? Those questions will be answered during this thesis. Problem statement How does work motivation affect the job performance of employees in an organization? Research Questions What are the theoretical approaches of work motivation? Which different perspectives of job performance are developed by researchers? How do work motivation and job performance influence each other? Methodology According to Sekaran and Bougie (2009) there are different ways to collect data. The type of research that will be used for this thesis is a descriptive research. This thesis is a literature study which means that secondary sources will be researched. Analysis of different variables will be the basis for additional empirical research. Recent empirical research will be used to analyze the subjects of this thesis. By using scientifically papers the data can be found. The concepts of this research are work motivation, job performance and the link between work motivation and job performance. Structure The main goal of this paper is to analyze how work motivation affects the job performance of employees within an organization. This paper is subdivided in three chapters. In the first chapter answers will be found about work motivation. What is work motivation and how does motivation influences employees? The main subject of the second chapter will be job performance. For example questions regarding job performance are, what is job performance, what influences job performance within an organization? The third and last chapter will bring work motivation and job performance together. In this chapter work motivation and job performance will be combined. The main question of this chapter will be: Does work motivation influence job performance and what will be the benefits within an organization? Chapter 2: Work motivation Each organization has employees who work for that organization. When employees are motivated, they are enjoyable and they are more interested in their jobs (Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. 2000b). A large amount of researchers agree in the concept work motivation. This chapter will provide an analysis of the two types of work motivation. The first part of this chapter work motivation will be discussed. The second part of this chapter intrinsic and extrinsic motivation will be explained and the last part of this chapter provides the effect of those types of motivation. A large amount of researchers researched the concept work motivation. According to Pinder (1998) work motivation is a set of energetic forces that invent both inside as well as outside an individuals being, to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its direction, intensity, and duration. Ambrose Kulik (1999) argues that work motivation is invisible, internal and hypothetical. A complement of the researchers above Pinder (1998) argues that energetic forces have a great influence on the work motivation of employees. Atkinson (1964) agrees with Pinder (1998). Atkinson (1964) argues that work motivation has a lot to do with the psychological process of employees. Seen these researchers there can be said that work motivation has to do with the psychological process. The psychological process of employees is invisible and internal. Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation As said above, work motivation is a psychological process which is invisible and internal, but there is also dichotomy of motivation called intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Porter and Lawler 1968). This study was developed in 1968 but still these two types of motivation are used in the literature (Steel 2008). In the previous paragraph the two types of motivation are mentioned. Researchers (Porter and Lawler 1968, Steel 2008) have found two different types of work motivation. The following paragraphs will discuss intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation The last decades a large amount of researchers investigated the concepts intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. According to Calder and Staw (1975) motivation is intrinsic if an activity is undertaken for someone who needs immediate satisfaction. Van Yperen and Hagendoorn (2003) argue that motivation is intrinsic when people perform an activity for itself which bring them satisfaction. Van Yperen and Hagendoorn (2003) agree with Calder and Staw (1975) but they add that satisfaction is inherent to enjoy. Steele (2008) argues that intrinsic motivation could include involvement in behavioural patterns, thought processes, action and activity or reaction for its own importance. The previous paragraph describes that intrinsic motivation increases the satisfaction and enjoyment of employees. Deci (1971) argues that there are two ways to measure intrinsic motivation. The first way is to measure the free choice. An example for the free choice is: do what you want to do and dont look to somebody else. The second way of measuring intrinsic motivation is the use of self-reports of interest and enjoyments of a specific activity. An example for the self-report method is a questionnaire under employees. This way of measuring intrinsic motivation is most often used for experimental studies (Ryan, 1982). Loewenstein (1999) agrees with Deci (1971). Loewenstein (1999) also found two ways of measuring intrinsic motivation. Loewenstein (1999) uses almost the same levels just like Deci (1971) does: Through a persons self-report of how interesting and enjoyable the task is. Through the behavioral measures of choice of, and amount of time engaged with, the task during a free-choice period in which there are no extrinsic rewards or incentives associated with choosing or engaging in the task. The two measurement methods of Loewenstein (1999) and Deci (1971) have a positive match. They both have found two ways to measure intrinsic motivation. During this paragraph the researchers mentioned two different ways of methods to measure intrinsic motivation. There can be said that these two measurement methods can be used for intrinsic motivation. If managers use these two methods they can find differences in intrinsic motivation at employees over a period. The outcomes can help managers to understand the intrinsic motivation of his employees. All of the researchers mentioned above agree with the concept that intrinsic motivation is motivation that comes from within a person. Intrinsic motivation also gives people more satisfaction and enjoy. When employees are intrinsically motivated their satisfaction and enjoyment for work increases. Another type of motivation is extrinsic motivation. The following paragraphs will analyze the concepts Extrinsic motivation Where intrinsic motivation is motivation from within a person, extrinsic motivation relates to external values. This is the mean difference with intrinsic motivation. Just like intrinsic motivation, a lot of research has been done about extrinsic motivation. Osterloh (2002) argues that extrinsic motivation occurs when employees are able to satisfy their needs indirectly, most importantly through a financial compensation. Money is a goal which provides satisfaction independent of the actual activity itself. Ryan and Deci (2000) argue that extrinsic motivation is motivation that gives an external value. External values can be salary, holidays and other working conditions. Researchers (Deci Ryan, 2000; Ryan Deci, 2007) have found three types of extrinsic motivation that can be ordered by the self-determination theory. The Self-determination theory (SDT) is a motivational theory that can be used for understanding individuals motivation (Deci Ryan, 2000; Ryan Deci, 2007). By doing research (Pelletier, L. G., Sarrazin, P. 2007) on this framework several studies have shown that extrinsic motivation is significantly related to performance (Boich-e, Sarrazin, Grouzet, Pelletier, Chanal, 2008). There are three levels in the self- determination theory. From lower to higher levels of self-determination, there are: external regulation, introjections and identification. The first level is the external regulation (Deci Ryan, 2000; Ryan Deci, 2007). This is behaviour that is regulated through external means like rewards and constraints. For example I study the night before exams, because my parents force me to. The second level is the introjected regulation (Deci Ryan, 2000; Ryan Deci, 2007). This level explains that the individual begins to acquire the reasons of the persons action. For example: I study the night before exams because thats what good students are supposed to do. The third and last level is Identification (Deci Ryan, 2000; Ryan Deci, 2007) Identification is the behaviour that becomes valued and judged important for the individual, and especially that it is perceived as chosen by oneself. For example: Ive chosen to study tonight because it is something important for me. Seen the analysis given above, there can be said that extrinsic motivation is motivation that points to external rewards like money and holidays. Managers can use this information for their employees. If a manager thinks that his employee isnt motivated enough, he can try to use external rewards to increase the employees extrinsic motivation. Effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation The previous paragraphs provided an analysis of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The following paragraphs will provide information about the effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Effect of intrinsic motivation Researchers have found that a positive effect on a persons motivation increases the intrinsic motivation. Kraiger, Billings, Isen (1989) argue that a positive affect increases peoples enjoyment and interest of interesting activities. Another study found that the positive effect increases the valence of moderately desirable rewards (Erez Isen, 2002). Intrinsic motivation does not only affect the enjoyment and interests. It also affects the satisfaction and the performance during working hours (Erez Isen, 2002; Isen, Daubman, Nowicki, 1987; Staw Barsade, 1993). Vansteenkiste (2004) argues that people who are intrinsically motivated during reading material and other work activities achieve a better performance during performance appraisals than people who are extrinsically motivated. Through years scientists have found a positive effect between motivation and the intrinsic motivation. Scientists agree that satisfaction and performance increases the intrinsic motivation. If an employee in an organization is intrinsically motivated, his satisfaction and performance at work will increase. Managers can use this information about the effect of intrinsic motivation. Managers need to motivation employees intrinsically. If they do that the performance and satisfaction will increase (Staw Barsade, 1993). Effect of extrinsic motivation In the previous paragraph the effects of intrinsic motivation are discussed. Managers can use external rewards to increase the extrinsic motivation but what is the effect of those rewards on extrinsic motivation? This paragraph will provide information about the effect of extrinsic motivation on employees of an organization. Research on intrinsic motivation has demonstrated that extrinsic rewards can have a negative effect on intrinsic motivation (Daniel Esser, 1980; deCharms, 1968; Hess, Sandelands, 1980). As we see, this is an older study and researchers from the last decades have found new information about the effect of extrinsic motivation. A large amount of theories in social sciences have found a relationship between extrinsic motivation and human attitude. One of these theories is the Economic Exchange Theory (Constant, (2001) D, Kiesler, S (1998), and Sproull, L. 1994). This theory explains how people shape their attitudes by analyzing the consistencies of their own behaviour. The theory explains that people behave in a specific way because they feel that the consequences of their own behaviour will bring more rewards of a certain benefits and these rewards and benefits will offset their behaviour (Constant, (2001) D, Kiesler, S (1998)., and Sproull, L. 1994). According to Steel (2008) the extrinsic factors that can influence motivation can include circumstances, situations, rewards or punishment. Those influences can be tangible and intangible. Steel (2008) argues that tangible benefits are monetary rewards and prizes. Intangible benefits include recognition, adoration and praise. In the last decades a large amount of researchers researched the effect of extrinsic motivation. In the eighties and nineties researchers found a negative effect between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation. Researchers agreed that for example: a higher salary had a negative effect on the performance or satisfaction. The last decades Kiesler (1998), Sproull (1994) en Steel (2008) have found a positive affect between extrinsic factors that influence extrinsic motivation. External rewards affect the extrinsic motivation. Conclusion To answer the question mentioned in chapter 1, a lot of research has been done during this chapter. During this chapter two different types of motivation were found called intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is that intrinsic motivation comes from within a person and extrinsic motivation is based on the motivation of external rewards like money and power (Ryan and Deci 2000). Also the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are discussed. The outcomes during this research were that external rewards increase the intrinsic motivation and that intrinsic motivation influences the motivation and satisfaction. Many studies have found that an extrinsic award can subvert intrinsic motivation for specific tasks (Deci, Koestner, Ryan, 1999). Intrinsic motivation is considered to promote psychological feelings of personal interests but extrinsic motivation can boycott your interests. Extrinsic rewards are for example money and pow er (Deci, Koestner, Ryan, 1999). Both approaches of motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) have an effect on the work motivation. An employee needs intrinsic motivation to create enough satisfaction and performance but he/she also needs extrinsic motivation to have enough power and to earn enough money. A combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation has a positive effect on the work motivation. Chapter 3: Job performance In an organization, job performance is essential for the turnover and profit of an organization. When the performance of the employees from an organization is low, the turnover and profit will be lower than the performance of the employees is high. Mangers can fire employees of the performance is too low and can promote employees if the performance is high. According to Greenhaus Parasuraman (1993) managers from an organization can have influence on the performance of employees. A good manager can make the performance of his employees better so that he does not have to fire employees. Task and contextual performance As mentioned in the introduction of this paper, job performance is the performance of a person at work. The last decades, researchers investigated job performance. First job performance was directly connected with task performance. Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997) expanded the domain of job performance to include contextual performance. Gellatly Irving (2001) agree with Borman and Motowidlo (1993, 1997). They found that job performance can be divided in task performance and contextual performance. Nowadays job performance can be divided in both task and contextual performance. According to Motowidlo, Borman, Schmit (1997) job performance is a dynamic multidimensional construct that refers to employees behaviors at work that directly or indirectly support organizational goals. Motowidlo (1997) also argues that job performance is a multidimensional construct which can be divided in two general levels. The first level is task performance and the second level is contextual performance . Williams Anderson (1991) argue that task performance is related to an employees contribution to organizational performance. Gellatyl Irving (2001) agree with Williamson Anderson (1991). Gellatyl Irving (2001) argue that task performance (in-role behaviour) is behaviour that contributes to the organizations core. More specifically, task performance involves behaviour that contributes to the organizations work environment (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). There can be said that task performance contributes directly to the work environment of an organization but how about the second level. The second level is contextual performance (extra-role behaviour). According to Borman Motowidlo (1993) contextual performance can be labeled as behaviour that does not directly contribute to organizational performance but contextual performance supports the psychological and social environment. Gellatly Irving (2001) argue that contextual performance (extra-role behaviour) helps form the organizational, social, and psychological conditions that support task activities. This is why contextual performance is also called extra-role behaviour. This behaviour is additional (extra) to an employees behaviour. Contextual performance helps employees to improve their performance by listening to other colleagues. Beal (2005) developed a theoretical substruction for examining changes in job performance. When examining dynamic performance individuals variability in performance will be measured over time. To find differences in job performance the manager has to select variables to measure the variability over time. A large amount of researchers argue that different variables can find variability over time. However, researchers do not agree which variables that will be. Job performance is an important variable in human resource management and organizational behaviour (Viswesvaran, Schmidt, Ones, 2005). A well known way to measure job performance is by gender. As we know, there are still lots of differences between male and female. An example for the differences between gender at work is payroll and promotion. McKay McDaniel (2006), Roth, Huffcutt, Bobko (2003) argue that there is a sufficient consistent that males receive a more favourable performance evaluation than females receive. Those higher performance evaluations can have a positive influence on promotions within an organization (Greenhaus Parasuraman, 1993). When employees of an organization receive higher evaluations they are a better candidate for promotion than someone who has a lower evaluation. Gender differences in measures of job performance can have influence on many other variables than only promotions. Another variable that can have influences is payment (Robertson, 1986). The differences in payment can have a negative influence on the trust and the satisfaction of an employee. When an employee of an organizati on is getting fewer loan than his colleague with the same job description the trust and satisfaction will decrease (King et al., 2010). A direct effect on loan is lateness, absenteeism, and turnover and achieves goals (Harrison, Newman, Roth, 2006). Influence on job performance The previous paragraphs discussed the task performance and contextual performance. Researchers found that task as contextual performance have influences on job performance. Task performance has a direct effect on the performance. Task performance or in-role behaviour is behaviour that contributes to the core of an organization. Contextual performance indirectly contributes to an organizations performance Gellatyl Irving (2001). Contextual performance (extra-role behaviour) influences the social environment of an employee and not the core of an organization like task performance. Not only task and contextual performance (or in-role or extra-role behaviour) affects the job performance. Stress is also a variable that influences the job performance. Researchers have found a relation between work stressors and job performance. According to Jex (1998) this relationship depends on different factors that determine the stressors. Cavanaugh (2000) found that challenge stressors are positively related with job performance but, hindrance stressors are negatively associated with job performance. A lot of people think that stress always has a negative relationship with job performance but this literature displays the opposite. Stress can be positive in the challenge manner but can also be negative if the stress forces you to do things (Cavanaugh 2000). An example of challenge could be that account managers should reach their goals/targets each month. During this period of time, account managers have positive stress because they want to reach their goals/targets. An example of a hindrance stressor is that somebody wants to book a room in a hotel but all rooms are booked and his flight is tomorrow. This is a hindrance stressor because the b ooker is hampered in his choice and this can have a negative effect on his performance. Stress has a lot to do with emotional feelings. Negative stress like hindrance can cause emotional exhaustion (Cordes Dougherty, 1993). Emotional exhaustion can be measured individually or in groups. During this paper, when we talk about emotional exhaustion, the individual emotional exhaustion is intended. Emotional exhaustion is the moment when employees feel emotionally overwhelmed and drained by their work (Leiter Maslach, 1988; Wilk Moynihan, 2005). Cordes Dougherty (1993) also add that a consequence of emotional exhaustion can cause a lack of energy and a bad feeling to an employee. Emotional exhaustion happens more frequently because organizations are asking more and more from their employees regarding responsibility and job performance (Klein Verbeke 1999). According to Lee Ashforth (1996) emotional exhaustion can have consequences for an organization. When an employee has an emotional exhaustion his withdrawal behaviour can increase. Babakus, Cravens, Johnston Moncrief (1999) add that it also can decrease the job performance. Managers prefer not that their employees get emotionally exhausted. According to Cohen Wills (1985) managers might identify targets more effectively for the emotional support of their employees to enhance the job performance. By using the conservation of resources (COR) theory, researchers can clarify how feelings of emotional exhaustion can influence job performance. According to the COR theory, individuals become more emotionally exhausted when they do not have enough resources to do their job. The resources may include participation in decision making and social support by managers (Cordes Dougherty, 1993). The COR theory also argues that work asks a lot from employees. When demands exceed resources job performance can be reduced (Babakus 1999). Hobfoll Freedy (1993) and Hobfoll (1998) both found a negative relation between emotional exhaustion and job performance by using the COR theory. Conclusion During this chapter two types of job performance are found called task and contextual performance (also known as in-role and extra-role behaviour). Task performance is the performance that has a direct contribution to the operations core. Unlike task performance, contextual performance does not contribute to the operations core but it supports the social environment. These are the two main differences between task performance and contextual performance. These two types of performance have an influence in the job performance and they can be measured. Research has found that different variables can influence the job performance. In this chapter gender and stressors are used to find out how performance can be measured. Nowadays there are still a lot of differences between male and female. Researchers have found that males receive better performance reviews than females. These performance reviews can have an effect on the motivation of that specific employee. Not only performance reviews but also stressors can have an influence on the job performance. There are positive and negative stressors. The negative stressors have a negative influence on the job performance. A negative stressors can for example be a black out. The positive stressors can have a positive effect on the job performance. When employees have a certain pressure to perform the stressors can be positive. The positive stressors can have a positive influence on the job performance. Chapter 4: The relationship between work motivation and job performance The previous chapters discussed work motivation and the job performance separately. This chapter will combine work motivation and job performance. For managers it is essential to know how they can motivate their employees and if this has an influence on the job performance. If there is a positive connection between work motivation and job performance, managers can use information from the analysis mentioned in chapter 2 (work motivation) to improve the job performance. As we know, if the job performance increases the profit and turnover will increase inherently. Work motivation and job performance Researchers have found a positive connection between intrinsic motivation and job performance. According to Humphrey (2007) intrinsic motivation is positively related to work performance, organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Job autonomy is also inherent to intrinsic motivation (Morgeson, Delaney-klinger, Hemingway, 2005). When employees are intrinsically motivated their satisfaction and enjoy is higher than an employee who is extrinsically motivated. Because of the intrinsic motivation of the employee, the autonomy will increase as well (Parker, 1998). This is for managers important data because, the higher autonomy of employees the more individuality the employee has. The manager can give more support to other employees by who the autonomy is lower. Another relationship between motivation and performance has been found. Researchers found a positive connection between intrinsic work motivation and task performance (Morgeson et al. 2005). If employees have a certain pleasure and satisfaction when they are at work, this will have a positive effect on the work activities. According to Grouzet, Vallerand, Thill Provencher (2004) individuals who are intrinsically motivated perform better in their tasks because they find their tasks enjoyable and interesting. They also find that participation in those specific tasks is like a reward (Deci et al. 1989). This is in line with the study of Morgeson (2005). Morgeson (2005) also found that the progress of the work activities is inherent to the job performance (Morgeson et al. 2005). Therefore the better the employees work activities the better the job performance. Finally, Gagnà © and Deci (2005) found that employees who have a high intrinsic motivation are more involved in their jobs and they have a greater goal attainment than employees who have a lower intrinsic motivation. According to Humphrey (2007) employees who are intrinsically motivation not only have a greater goal to attainment but, they also have a greater responsibility and volition to perform better and to be successful in the organization. The connections above are interesting because a large amount of researchers agree in the concept that intrinsic motivation influences the job performance positively. Not only employees who are intrinsically motivated have an influence on the job performance. Researchers have also found that employees who are extrinsically motivated have a positive effect on the job performance. A positive connection betw